Ajwain

Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague

Sources

12 listed

Best forReached for after a rich meal and in the kitchen. Ajwain gives breads, lentils and fried snacks a sharp, thyme-like bite, and a pinch chewed or steeped in hot water is South Asia's classic home remedy for wind and a heavy stomach.

Clinical evidence

Traditional

Real World Significance

46Established historical significance

Breadth 42 Depth 51 Density 13 Convergence 63 Continuity 78

SafetyUse with cautionAs a culinary spice in ordinary amounts ajwain is widely eaten. The caution rating reflects two concerns with concentrated forms. The seed has a recorded folk use to end pregnancies, and rat studies showed foetal harm, so concentrated preparations and the essential oil are to be avoided in pregnancy. High oral doses of the thymol-rich oil can also cause serious poisoning.

Tradition

AyurvedaFolk medicine

Common preparations

Whole SeedGround SpiceTea infusionEssential oilExtract

In short

Summary of findings for quick reference

Ajwain (Trachyspermum ammi, also known by the synonym Carum copticum and in English as carom or bishop's weed) is a thymol-rich spice of the carrot family from South and West Asia. The part used is the fruit, which looks like a seed and is usually called one. Ayurveda knows it as Yavani, Persian and Unani medicine as Nankhah, Siddha as omam, and Avicenna's Canon of Medicine lists it as early as the eleventh century. Whether in the Siddha materia medica or in the household, its leading use across South Asia is as an after-meal remedy for wind, indigestion and colic.

Behind the reputation is the essential oil, 2 to 4 per cent of the fruit, in which thymol usually dominates, with gamma-terpinene, p-cymene and carvacrol alongside. In isolated animal tissue the seed extract relaxes gut and airway muscle by blocking calcium channels. That is a plausible mechanism for the traditional use, though it has not been tested as such in people. Two human trials point the same way. A celery-and-ajwain mix eased functional dyspepsia in 150 adults more than omeprazole or placebo, although the effect cannot be credited to ajwain alone. In 70 students with period pain, ajwain capsules lowered pain further than mefenamic acid in an open-label trial, a statistically significant difference.

In the EU ajwain is a food and a spice, with no EMA herbal monograph and no authorised health claim. In ordinary kitchen amounts it is widely eaten. The cautions concern concentrated preparations and above all the thymol-rich essential oil. In a 1987 survey in Uttar Pradesh, women reported using ajwain seed to try to end pregnancies, and rat studies pointed to harm to the unborn, so concentrated preparations and the oil are to be avoided in pregnancy and while breastfeeding. High oral doses of the oil can also cause serious thymol poisoning. That is why the entry carries a caution rating.

Clinical evidence ↔ Historical significance

We display two separate evidence categories: clinical evidence from modern trials and historical significance from documented healing tradition. Both are valuable, but they answer different questions.

In every encyclopedia entry we evaluate two distinct categories of evidence. Clinical evidence as used in trials meets a narrower but scientifically essential bar. At the same time, the hundreds of thousands of plant species worldwide have only partially been captured and tested in modern studies.

Alongside the trial picture our researchers compile a comprehensive overview of where and since when a plant has been used across different traditions of natural medicine. When a plant has been used as a medicinal plant in many cultures across many generations, that historical significance deserves to be visible too.

Our position: a truly informative overview emerges only when both categories sit side by side. We communicate transparently what counts as what.

Overview

Ajwain, Trachyspermum ammi, is a small annual of the carrot family (Apiaceae), also sold as carom or bishop's weed and grown above all in India, Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan. The part used is the fruit, a ridged, seed-like schizocarp about 2 millimetres long that the kitchen almost always calls the seed. It tastes sharply of thyme because thymol dominates its essential oil. Ajwain is kitchen spice and household medicine at once, seasoning breads, lentils and fried snacks and chewed or steeped after meals for wind and a heavy stomach. The plant is also known by the synonym Carum copticum, and in tradition as Yavani in Ayurveda, Nankhah in Persian and Unani medicine and omam in Siddha.

Its reputation as a carminative and digestive runs deep and wide across South and West Asia. Avicenna's Canon of Medicine already lists the plant in the early eleventh century, and it still stands in the spice tins of Indian kitchens today. Modern research is smaller but points the same way. A celery-and-ajwain mix did better than omeprazole and placebo in functional dyspepsia, ajwain capsules eased period pain more than mefenamic acid in a small open-label trial, and in the laboratory the seed extract relaxes gut muscle like a calcium-channel blocker. In the EU ajwain is a food and a spice. Its safety divides by form, with the everyday spice on one side and, on the other, concentrated preparations and the potent essential oil, which call for real caution.

History

Ajwain's written history runs through the medicine of Persia and India. Avicenna, the Persian physician who lived from 980 to 1037, lists it as Nānkhāh in the second volume of his Canon of Medicine, there as a remedy that strengthens a 'cold' liver in the humoral thinking of his time. Persian and Unani medicine still call the plant Nankhah. In Sanskrit it is Yavani or Yamini, and India's official Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia carries a monograph on the fruit. Indian practice used it well beyond the stomach. A paste of the crushed fruits was spread on the belly for colic, and a hot, dry compress of the fruits was laid on the chest in asthma.

Outside the medical texts ajwain has never stopped being a kitchen spice. Across India, Pakistan, Iran and Afghanistan the fruit flavours breads, savoury fried snacks and lentil dishes, and in small amounts the seeds also serve as a preservative. A pinch chewed or steeped in hot water after a heavy meal is one of the best known home remedies on the subcontinent, and nursing mothers were traditionally given ajwain in the hope of more milk. Thymol, the main component of the oil, found its way into toothpaste and perfumery. In recent decades the seed and its oil have also been studied in the laboratory, mostly in India, Pakistan and Iran.

Mechanism

Ajwain owes its character to its essential oil. The fruit yields 2 to 4 per cent of a brownish oil in which thymol usually dominates, at roughly 35 to 60 per cent, alongside gamma-terpinene, p-cymene, alpha- and beta-pinene and carvacrol. The mix shifts with origin. Some South Indian oils are almost pure thymol, while other analyses find oils from Iran and Africa led by carvacrol, gamma-terpinene and p-cymene. The fruit also carries flavonoids, saponins and a thymol glucoside. Thymol and carvacrol are the same aromatic phenols that give thyme and oregano their character, which is why a few of the ridged fruits can flavour a whole dish and why the concentrated oil is so potent.

The traditional use against wind has a plausible basis in the laboratory. In a 2005 study from Karachi, a seed extract relaxed isolated rabbit gut and shifted its response to calcium in the same way as the calcium-channel blocker verapamil, which fits the old use against cramping and wind. The same extract widened isolated guinea-pig airways, lowered blood pressure in anaesthetised rats and, given to rats beforehand, kept their liver enzymes from rising after paracetamol or carbon tetrachloride. In the test tube the thymol-rich oil kills bacteria and fungi. All of this comes from animals and tissue preparations. Whether the spice does the same in people at kitchen amounts has not been studied.

The best human evidence on digestion comes from Kerman in Iran. In a randomised, double-blind trial published by Azimi and colleagues in 2017, 150 adults with functional dyspepsia took either two 500 mg capsules a day of equal parts celery (Apium graveolens) and ajwain, the acid blocker omeprazole or a placebo for four weeks. From week four, symptom severity and frequency fell further in the herbal group than in either comparison group, a statistically significant difference, and the lead held to the end of follow-up at week eight. Against placebo the mix eased burning, pain, early fullness, bloating, belching and nausea. Because two herbs were given together, the result belongs to the formula and cannot be credited to ajwain alone.

The second trial tested ajwain on its own. Zali and colleagues at the Iran University of Medical Sciences in Tehran randomised 70 students with primary dysmenorrhoea to ajwain capsules, 500 mg three times a day from cycle day 26 to the third day of the period for three cycles, or to the painkiller mefenamic acid. Peak pain, average pain and the length of pain fell in both groups, the average pain score fell further with ajwain, a statistically significant difference, and fewer clots were passed. Published in 2023, the trial was open-label and ran in student halls of residence, so a blinded trial is the next step.

Two further lines of human research are smaller. In asthmatic patients in Mashhad, a single oral dose of a boiled ajwain extract widened the airways within 30 minutes, with lung-function values up 23 to 32 per cent after 90 to 120 minutes, less than with the drug theophylline, while placebo made no measurable difference. On the skin, a 10 per cent ajwain cream eased burning feet in 92 people with neuropathic pain more than a placebo cream over four weeks. In a pilot trial in 60 people with nerve damage from taxane chemotherapy, however, an ajwain cream did no better than placebo.

Everything else rests on laboratory and animal work. Reviews by Bairwa and colleagues in 2012 and Boskabady and colleagues in 2014 collect antifungal, antibacterial, antispasmodic, blood-pressure-lowering and lipid-lowering effects reported for the seed and its oil, almost all of them seen in test tubes or animals.

Evidence

4 Outcomes evaluated. Sorted by grade.

Outcome	Class	Grade	Effect	Studies
Digestive complaints and flatulence (traditional use)People using the spice or fruit after meals	Traditional	D	Deep traditional use
Functional dyspepsia (celery-and-ajwain combination)Adults with functional dyspepsia (one RCT, 150 people)	Emerging	I	Combination preparation	1 study
Primary menstrual pain (single-herb ajwain)Women with primary dysmenorrhoea (one open-label trial, 70 people)	Emerging	I	One small open-label trial	1 study
Antispasmodic, bronchodilator and antimicrobial activityIn vitro and animal models	Emerging	I	Preclinical only

Key studies

The studies that matter.

Randomised controlled trial · 2017
A randomised, double-blind trial from Kerman, Iran, in 150 adults with functional dyspepsia compared four weeks of capsules of equal parts celery and ajwain with omeprazole and placebo. From week four, symptom severity and frequency fell further with the mix than in either comparison group, a statistically significant difference that held to week eight. It is the strongest digestive study, but it tests a two-herb formula, so the result cannot be credited to ajwain alone.
Azimi M, Zahedi MJ, Mehrabani M, Tajadini H, Zolala F, Baneshi MR, Choopani R, Sharififar F, Asadipour A, Hayatbakhsh MM, Ahmadi B. Azimi M, Zahedi MJ, Mehrabani M, Tajadini H, Zolala F, Baneshi MR, et al. Effect of Apium graveolens and Trachyspermum copticom on clinical symptoms of patients with functional dyspepsia. Avicenna J Phytomed. 2017;7(6):554-564. PMID:29299438
Randomised controlled trial · 2016
In a randomised, double-blind trial from Shiraz, 92 people with burning feet from neuropathic pain applied a 10 per cent ajwain cream or a placebo cream for four weeks. Burning, numbness, tingling and touch-evoked pain fell further with ajwain, a statistically significant difference. It is a single mid-sized trial of use on the skin, and a smaller pilot trial in nerve damage after chemotherapy found no benefit.
Petramfar P, Moein M, Samani SM, Tabatabaei SH, Zarshenas MM. Petramfar P, Moein M, Samani SM, Tabatabaei SH, Zarshenas MM. Trachyspermum ammi 10 % topical cream versus placebo on neuropathic pain, a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Neurol Sci. 2016;37(9):1449-55. doi:10.1007/s10072-016-2600-3
Randomised controlled trial · 2023
In an open-label randomised trial in Tehran student halls, 70 young women with primary dysmenorrhoea took either ajwain capsules, 500 mg three times a day from cycle day 26 to the third day of the period, or mefenamic acid for three cycles. Pain fell in both groups, the average pain score fell further with ajwain, a statistically significant difference, and fewer clots were passed. It is the only trial of ajwain alone taken by mouth, small and unblinded, so it needs a blinded repeat.
Zali F, Dadmehr M, Bahrami M, Ghobadi A, Kashanian M, Akhtari E. Zali F, Dadmehr M, Bahrami M, Ghobadi A, Kashanian M, Akhtari E. A comparison of the effect of ajwain (Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague) and mefenamic acid for alleviating the symptoms of primary dysmenorrhea: an open-label randomized controlled trial. Traditional and Integrative Medicine. 2023;8(2). doi:10.18502/tim.v8i2.13078
Animal study · 2005
In this laboratory study from Karachi, an extract of ajwain seed relaxed isolated rabbit gut and guinea-pig airways by blocking calcium channels, as the drug verapamil does. It lowered blood pressure in anaesthetised rats, and rats given it beforehand were protected against liver damage from paracetamol and carbon tetrachloride. The results come from animals and tissue only and offer a plausible mechanism for the traditional use, not proof in people.
Gilani AH, Jabeen Q, Ghayur MN, Janbaz KH, Akhtar MS. Gilani AH, Jabeen Q, Ghayur MN, Janbaz KH, Akhtar MS. Studies on the antihypertensive, antispasmodic, bronchodilator and hepatoprotective activities of the Carum copticum seed extract. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;98(1-2):127-35. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2005.01.017

Usage

Forms and preparation

In the kitchen ajwain is used as a whole or lightly crushed fruit. A small pinch is added to breads, lentil dishes, pickles and fried snacks, often briefly tempered in hot oil or ghee to release its thyme-like aroma. Because the oil is potent, a little goes a long way. As a simple home remedy after a heavy meal, a pinch of the fruit is chewed, or steeped in a cup of hot water for a few minutes and drunk as a warm infusion, sometimes with a little salt or jaggery in the South Asian style. Beyond the everyday spice, ajwain is sold as a ground powder, as standardised extracts in some supplements and as a concentrated, thymol-rich essential oil. Extracts and oil are a different matter from the kitchen spice. They are potent, the oil is not for casual internal use, and the label and intended use matter. As a kitchen spice and a simple after-meal infusion, ajwain needs no special preparation.

Dosage

There is no official dose for ajwain, which in Europe is a food and a spice. In cooking it goes in to taste, usually a small pinch to a teaspoon per dish. As a traditional after-meal remedy, a pinch of the fruit, chewed or steeped, is the household measure rather than a recommended dose. The trials used capsules. In the dyspepsia trial (Azimi 2017) it was one 500 mg capsule of a celery-and-ajwain mix after breakfast and one after dinner for four weeks, and in the period-pain trial (Zali 2023) 500 mg of ajwain three times a day from cycle day 26 to the third day of the period. These are study protocols, not recommendations. Use concentrated extracts only as the label directs, and keep the essential oil out of casual internal use.

Special populations

The everyday spice in food is widely eaten, but concentrated ajwain preparations and the thymol-rich essential oil are not for everyone. In pregnancy, avoid concentrated preparations and the oil, because the seed has a recorded folk use to end pregnancies and rat studies showed harm to the unborn. In breastfeeding, avoid them too. Indian households traditionally give ajwain to nursing mothers for the milk, but that use is untested, and safety data for concentrated forms are lacking. Children should have only the culinary spice in food, not concentrated extracts or the oil. Anyone with a known sensitivity to thyme-family aromatic phenols, or with liver disease, should be cautious with concentrated forms and seek advice.

Safety

Safety profile

Ajwain's safety divides cleanly by form, and that is the key to using it sensibly. As a kitchen spice in food amounts it is widely eaten across South Asia and beyond, and a small after-meal infusion of the fruit is a long-standing household practice. No official list of contraindications exists. The cautions below draw on field surveys, animal studies and the known toxicology of thymol. The cautions concern concentrated preparations and above all the thymol-rich essential oil, and they are real. First, pregnancy and breastfeeding. In a 1987 survey in Uttar Pradesh, 50 of the 75 pregnant women questioned in one village said they had taken ajwain seed to end a pregnancy, and rat studies pointed to harm to the unborn. Avoid concentrated preparations and the oil in pregnancy, and while breastfeeding too, where safety data are missing. Ajwain as a seasoning in food is a different, everyday matter. Second, the concentrated oil is potent. High oral doses can cause serious thymol poisoning, with stomach pain, nausea and vomiting and, in extreme cases, convulsions, coma and life-threatening collapse, so the oil is not for casual internal use. If any unexpected symptom appears with concentrated use, stop and seek advice.

Drug interactions

There is no official interaction list for ajwain. Two laboratory findings justify a theoretical caution with concentrated intake. The seed extract lowered blood pressure in anaesthetised rats, and an extract of the spice inhibited the clumping of human platelets in the test tube. If you take blood-pressure medicines, antispasmodics, anticoagulants or antiplatelet drugs, tell your doctor before using concentrated ajwain preparations or the oil. The spice in ordinary kitchen amounts is not expected to interact.

Contraindications

Pregnancy and breastfeeding: avoid concentrated ajwain preparations and the essential oil, given the reported use of the seed to end pregnancies, the foetal harm seen in rat studies and the lack of safety data in breastfeeding. Ajwain as a seasoning in food is a separate, everyday matter. Hypersensitivity to ajwain or to thyme-family aromatic phenols (thymol, carvacrol): anyone who reacts should avoid it. Concentrated essential oil for casual internal use: not recommended, because high oral doses can cause serious thymol toxicity. Existing liver disease: caution with concentrated extracts and the oil without medical advice.

Side effects

No side effects are known at ordinary culinary amounts. The thymol-rich oil can irritate the stomach lining, and high oral doses of the concentrated oil can cause stomach pain, nausea, vomiting and, in serious poisoning, convulsions and collapse of heart and breathing. On the skin thymol only rarely causes irritation or allergy. If any reaction appears with concentrated use, stop and seek advice.

Look-alikes

Botany

Family

Apiaceae

Native regions

Native from Iraq and Iran to the Himalaya and Myanmar, Cultivated in India, Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan, Also grown in parts of North Africa and the Middle East

Harvest window

Fruits (the seed-like schizocarps) harvested when ripe, then dried

Habitat

An annual of the carrot family that thrives in dry, warm country and tolerates salty soils. Kew's World Checklist of Vascular Plants places its wild range from Iraq and Iran through Turkmenistan, Afghanistan and Pakistan to the Himalaya and Myanmar, while older Indian literature names Egypt as its home. Today it is grown as a field crop above all in India, where Gujarat and Rajasthan lead, and in Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan. It is cultivated for its fruit and is not gathered from the wild in Europe.

Identification & foraging

A slender, much-branched annual 60 to 90 centimetres tall, with feathery pinnate leaves and small white flowers in compound umbels. The part used is the fruit, a greyish-brown, ridged schizocarp only about 2 millimetres long that splits into two halves and looks like a seed. Crushed between the fingers it smells sharply of thyme, and that scent is the surest way to tell ajwain from caraway or cumin in the spice jar.

Similar plants and look-alikes

Unpleasant

Caraway (Carum carvi) and cumin (Cuminum cyminum)

Caraway and cumin are small, ridged fruits of the carrot family too, and they stand right next to ajwain on the spice shelf. Taste tells them apart at once. Caraway is sweetish with a hint of aniseed, cumin earthy and warm, ajwain sharp and thyme-like because of its thymol. None of them is harmful, but they are not interchangeable in a recipe, so check the label when a dish calls for one of them.

Read the entry: Caraway

Deadly

Toxic wild Apiaceae (hemlock, Conium maculatum and relatives)

This warning is about the plant family, not the spice you buy. The carrot family includes some of Europe's most poisonous plants, among them poison hemlock (Conium maculatum) and water hemlock (Cicuta virosa), which have killed people. Ajwain is a cultivated spice sold as dried fruit, so normal use carries no foraging risk. Never gather wild plants of the carrot family as ajwain or as any other spice, because deadly lookalikes grow in this family. Buy ajwain as a labelled spice from a reputable source.

FAQs

What part of ajwain is used and why does it taste like thyme?

The fruit. It is small, ridged and seed-like, so in the kitchen it is almost always called the seed. Its thyme scent comes from thymol, which makes up roughly 35 to 60 per cent of the essential oil, the same aromatic phenol that gives thyme its character. That is why a pinch flavours a whole dish, and why the pure oil is so potent.

Is ajwain recognised as a medicinal herb in the EU?

No. In the EU ajwain is a food and a spice. The European Medicines Agency (EMA) has no herbal monograph on it, and there is no authorised health claim for it either. India treats it differently. The country's official Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia carries a monograph on the fruit under the name Yavani. Its relative caraway (Carum carvi) does have an EMA monograph, but that covers caraway only.

Does ajwain really help digestion, and what does the evidence show?

In Ayurveda, Unani and Persian medicine ajwain is the spice for wind and fullness after meals. Modern trials point the same way, though none has yet tested ajwain on its own for digestion. In the best study, 150 adults with functional dyspepsia took a celery-and-ajwain mix for four weeks, and their symptoms eased more than with omeprazole or placebo. In isolated animal gut tissue the seed extract relaxes the muscle much as the drug verapamil does, a laboratory finding that fits the old use.

Is ajwain safe in pregnancy and breastfeeding?

It depends on the form. As a seasoning in ordinary amounts, ajwain is widely eaten across South Asia. Concentrated preparations and the essential oil are another matter. In a 1987 survey in Uttar Pradesh, 50 of the 75 pregnant women questioned in one village said they had taken ajwain seed to end a pregnancy, and rat studies pointed to a risk for the unborn. Avoid concentrated preparations and the oil in pregnancy, and while breastfeeding too, where there are no safety data. If you are pregnant and want to use ajwain as a remedy rather than a seasoning, talk to your doctor first.

Can I take ajwain essential oil internally?

Not on your own. The essential oil is largely thymol, and thymol in high doses causes stomach pain, nausea and vomiting and, in serious poisoning, convulsions, coma and collapse of heart and breathing. The everyday form is the spice in food. Take a concentrated extract or the oil only under qualified guidance and strictly as the label directs.

Which traditions use ajwain?

Ajwain belongs to South and West Asia. Ayurveda knows it as Yavani, Persian and Unani medicine as Nankhah, and Avicenna listed it in his Canon of Medicine in the early eleventh century. Siddha materia medica classes omam seeds as stomachic and carminative, and Siddha practitioners in Tamil Nadu still prescribe them in medicinal foods. Across the Indian subcontinent it is household remedy and spice at once.

References

12 sources.

Azimi M, Zahedi MJ, Mehrabani M, Tajadini H, Zolala F, Baneshi MR, Choopani R, Sharififar F, Asadipour A, Hayatbakhsh MM, Ahmadi B. Azimi M, Zahedi MJ, Mehrabani M, Tajadini H, Zolala F, Baneshi MR, et al. Effect of Apium graveolens and Trachyspermum copticom on clinical symptoms of patients with functional dyspepsia. Avicenna J Phytomed. 2017;7(6):554-564.. 2017. PMID:29299438
Zali F, Dadmehr M, Bahrami M, Ghobadi A, Kashanian M, Akhtari E. Zali F, Dadmehr M, Bahrami M, Ghobadi A, Kashanian M, Akhtari E. A comparison of the effect of ajwain (Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague) and mefenamic acid for alleviating the symptoms of primary dysmenorrhea: an open-label randomized controlled trial. Traditional and Integrative Medicine. 2023;8(2).. 2023. doi:10.18502/tim.v8i2.13078
Gilani AH, Jabeen Q, Ghayur MN, Janbaz KH, Akhtar MS. Gilani AH, Jabeen Q, Ghayur MN, Janbaz KH, Akhtar MS. Studies on the antihypertensive, antispasmodic, bronchodilator and hepatoprotective activities of the Carum copticum seed extract. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;98(1-2):127-35.. 2005. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2005.01.017
Boskabady MH, Alitaneh S, Alavinezhad A. Boskabady MH, Alitaneh S, Alavinezhad A. Carum copticum L.: a herbal medicine with various pharmacological effects. Biomed Res Int. 2014;2014:569087.. 2014. doi:10.1155/2014/569087
Bairwa R, Sodha RS, Rajawat BS. Bairwa R, Sodha RS, Rajawat BS. Trachyspermum ammi. Pharmacogn Rev. 2012;6(11):56-60.. 2012. doi:10.4103/0973-7847.95871
Petramfar P, Moein M, Samani SM, Tabatabaei SH, Zarshenas MM. Petramfar P, Moein M, Samani SM, Tabatabaei SH, Zarshenas MM. Trachyspermum ammi 10 % topical cream versus placebo on neuropathic pain, a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Neurol Sci. 2016;37(9):1449-55.. 2016. doi:10.1007/s10072-016-2600-3
Heydarirad G, Mirzaei HR, Gharehgozlou R, Buentzel J, Namazi MR, Pasalar M. Heydarirad G, Mirzaei HR, Gharehgozlou R, Buentzel J, Namazi MR, Pasalar M. Exploring the effectiveness of ajwain cream in treating taxane-induced peripheral neuropathy in cancer patients: a pilot, randomised and double-blind clinical trial. Indian J Palliat Care. 2024;30(1):71-76.. 2024. doi:10.25259/IJPC_32_2023
Boskabady MH, Alizadeh M, Jahanbin B. Boskabady MH, Alizadeh M, Jahanbin B. Bronchodilatory effect of Carum copticum in airways of asthmatic patients. Therapie. 2007;62(1):23-9.. 2007. doi:10.2515/therapie:2007007
Srivastava KC. Srivastava KC. Extract of a spice, omum (Trachyspermum ammi), shows antiaggregatory effects and alters arachidonic acid metabolism in human platelets. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 1988;33(1):1-6.. 1988. doi:10.1016/0952-3278(88)90115-9
Ghobadi Pour M, Mirazi N, Seif A. Ghobadi Pour M, Mirazi N, Seif A. Treatment of liver and spleen illnesses by herbs: recommendations of Avicenna's heritage Canon of Medicine. Avicenna J Phytomed. 2019;9(2):101-116.. 2019. PMID:30984575
S. Esakkimuthu, S. Sylvester Darvin, S. Mutheeswaran, M. Gabriel Paulraj, P. Pandikumar, S. Ignacimuthu, N. A. Al-Dhabi. S. Esakkimuthu, S. Sylvester Darvin, S. Mutheeswaran, M. Gabriel Paulraj, P. Pandikumar, S. Ignacimuthu, N. A. Al-Dhabi (2018). A study on food-medicine continuum among the non-institutionally trained siddha practitioners of Tiruvallur district, Tamil Nadu, India. Journal of ethnobiology and ethnomedicine 14:45.. 2018. doi:10.1186/s13002-018-0240-9
National Center for Biotechnology Information. National Library of Medicine. Thymol (CID 6989), Human Toxicity Excerpts (Hazardous Substances Data Bank). PubChem.. 2026. Source

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